NTN Network Architectures in a Nutshell: Transparent vs Regenerative Payload, Single Connectivity, Multi-Connectivity and 3GPP Release 19
Introduction to NTN Network Architectures
Non-Terrestrial Networks (NTN) are an important part of the evolution of 5G, 5G-Advanced and future 6G communication systems. By using satellites and other airborne platforms to provide wireless connectivity, NTN can extend network coverage beyond the geographical limits of conventional terrestrial mobile networks.
Traditional mobile networks depend on terrestrial base stations, fiber backhaul and ground-based core network infrastructure. However, remote islands, oceans, mountainous regions, aircraft, disaster-affected areas and other locations may not have reliable terrestrial coverage. NTN can help address these limitations by introducing satellite-based radio access and alternative connectivity paths.NTN Network Architectures
The architecture of an NTN system determines where radio protocol processing takes place, how user equipment connects to the network, where the 5G Core Network is hosted and how satellite platforms communicate with ground infrastructure or other satellites.NTN Network Architectures
The 3rd Generation Partnership Project (3GPP) has studied several NTN architecture options. Two fundamental classifications are particularly important:
Single-connectivity NTN: The UE communicates through one selected network access arrangement.
Multi-connectivity NTN: The UE simultaneously communicates with multiple radio networks or core network connections, depending on the supported architecture.
Another important distinction is between transparent and regenerative satellite payloads. A transparent payload primarily relays radio signals, whereas a regenerative payload performs additional onboard processing and may host gNB functions.
Understanding these concepts is essential for engineers working on 5G NR, satellite communications, 5G Core, Radio Access Networks (RAN), protocol testing and next-generation telecom technologies.
Table of Contents
What Is an NTN Network Architecture?
Main Types of NTN Network Architectures
Single-Connectivity NTN Architecture
Multi-Connectivity NTN Architecture
Transparent NTN Payload Architecture
Regenerative NTN Payload Architecture
Understanding gNB, gNB-CU and gNB-DU in NTN
Inter-Satellite Links (ISL) and Satellite-to-Satellite Connectivity
The Role of the NTN Gateway, 5G Core and IMS
Transparent vs Regenerative Payload: Key Differences
Single Connectivity vs Multi-Connectivity
Practical NTN Architecture Examples
NTN Architecture Evolution Across 3GPP Releases
Benefits and Challenges of Different NTN Architectures
NTN Architecture and Protocol Testing
Applications of NTN Network Architectures
The Future of NTN in 5G-Advanced and 6G
Frequently Asked Questions
Conclusion
What Is an NTN Network Architecture?
A Non-Terrestrial Network architecture defines how satellite or airborne communication platforms interact with user equipment, radio access network functions, gateways and core network components.
Unlike a conventional terrestrial network, where a base station is generally installed at a fixed ground location, an NTN system may use a satellite or another non-terrestrial platform to deliver radio coverage over a large geographical area.
A simplified NTN communication path may look like this:
UE → Satellite → NTN Gateway → 5G Core Network → Data Network
The exact arrangement depends on the payload design. In a transparent architecture, the satellite relays the radio signal between the UE and the ground-based radio access network. In a regenerative architecture, the satellite can perform additional processing and host some or all relevant gNB functions.
An NTN architecture may include the following components:
User Equipment (UE): A smartphone, satellite terminal, IoT device or other compatible endpoint.
NTN satellite or platform: The spaceborne or airborne platform carrying the communication payload.
gNB: The 5G NR base station functionality responsible for radio access.
NTN Gateway: Ground infrastructure that connects the satellite communication system to terrestrial network functions.
5G Core (5GC): The core network that supports registration, session management, mobility and user-plane connectivity.
IP Data Network: The destination network hosting internet services, enterprise applications and other data services.
IMS: The IP Multimedia Subsystem, when multimedia services such as IMS-based voice are part of the deployment.
Not every architecture places these functions in the same location. The placement of the gNB, core functions and transport links is one of the main differences between NTN deployment models.
Main Types of NTN Network Architectures
NTN architectures can be classified along two different dimensions: connectivity and payload processing.
2.1 Classification by connectivity
Single-connectivity NTN
The UE communicates using one selected access connection. In the baseline architecture described here, the satellite access is connected to ground-based 5G Core infrastructure and potentially IMS.
Multi-connectivity NTN
The UE simultaneously communicates with multiple radio networks or supported core-network connections. Examples include terrestrial and satellite access together, or two satellite-based access networks.
2.2 Classification by satellite payload
Transparent payload
The satellite acts primarily as a radio-frequency relay. The gNB and the associated radio protocol processing remain on the ground.
Regenerative payload
The satellite performs additional processing and can host gNB functions, including a complete gNB or a gNB distributed unit (gNB-DU), depending on the architecture.
These two classifications are related but independent. Single-connectivity and multi-connectivity describe how the UE connects to networks, while transparent and regenerative describe where radio processing occurs.
A multi-connectivity deployment can therefore involve transparent or regenerative NTN access, subject to the relevant standards and implementation.
Single-Connectivity NTN Architecture
In a single-connectivity NTN arrangement, the UE communicates through one selected network access connection rather than simultaneously using multiple radio access connections.
The architecture can use a transparent satellite payload or a regenerative satellite payload.
3.1 Single connectivity with a transparent payload
In this model, the satellite relays the radio signal between the UE and the NTN Gateway. The gNB is located on the ground, where the radio protocol processing is performed.
A simplified downlink path is:
5GC → Ground gNB → NTN Gateway/feeder link → Transparent satellite → UE
The uplink follows the reverse direction.
The satellite does not terminate the complete NR radio interface in the way an onboard gNB would. Instead, it forwards the radio signal between the service link and the feeder link.
This architecture allows operators to retain substantial radio access processing in terrestrial infrastructure.
3.2 Single connectivity with a regenerative payload
In a regenerative arrangement, the satellite performs additional onboard processing. Depending on the design, it may host the full gNB or only the gNB-DU, while other functions remain on the ground.
A simplified arrangement is:
UE → Satellite with onboard gNB processing → NTN transport/gateway → 5GC
The exact interface arrangement depends on which gNB functions are hosted onboard.
Regenerative processing can reduce dependence on a purely transparent relay and may enable more flexible routing or connectivity arrangements. However, it also introduces greater onboard processing, software, power, thermal and operational requirements.
Multi-Connectivity NTN Architecture
Multi-connectivity enables a UE to maintain simultaneous communication with multiple supported radio networks or core-network connections.
This approach can improve service continuity and provide more flexible network selection and traffic handling, depending on the implementation.
4.1 Terrestrial network plus NTN
One example involves a UE connected to both a terrestrial network (TN) and a non-terrestrial network.
A simplified conceptual arrangement is:
UE ↔ Terrestrial RAN ↔ Terrestrial 5GC
UE ↔ Satellite RAN ↔ NTN Gateway ↔ 5GC
The UE can have simultaneous radio connections to terrestrial and satellite access. The exact division of traffic, control functions and core-network connectivity depends on the standardized architecture and operator configuration.
Potential benefits include broader coverage, alternative connectivity paths and improved service continuity when terrestrial coverage becomes weak or unavailable.
4.2 Two NTN connections
A UE may also communicate with two NTN access networks, for example:
Two Low Earth Orbit (LEO) satellite-based networks.
One Geostationary Earth Orbit (GEO) satellite-based network and one LEO-based network.
The two access networks may have different coverage footprints, propagation delays, mobility characteristics and payload configurations.
For example, a LEO satellite may provide a moving coverage footprint with relatively short propagation distance, while a GEO satellite may provide a broad coverage footprint with a substantially longer propagation path.
Whether both connections can be used simultaneously for a particular service depends on UE capabilities, radio configuration, network architecture and supported 3GPP procedures.
4.3 Terrestrial and non-terrestrial core-network connectivity
Another architectural possibility involves connectivity to terrestrial 5GC functions and non-terrestrial 5GC functions.
In certain architectures, relevant IMS components may also be hosted on a satellite platform. This is a deployment possibility rather than a requirement for every NTN network.
Multi-connectivity should not be confused with simple handover. Handover transfers a connection from one serving access to another, whereas multi-connectivity involves simultaneous connections to multiple supported accesses.
Transparent NTN Payload Architecture
A transparent payload is often described as a bent-pipe satellite architecture because it relays signals between the service link and feeder link without hosting the full onboard gNB radio protocol stack.
The satellite may perform radio-frequency amplification, filtering and frequency conversion, depending on the implementation.
How does it work?
Uplink direction:
The UE transmits an NR signal toward the satellite.
The satellite receives and relays the signal through the feeder link.
The NTN Gateway forwards the signal toward the ground-based gNB.
The gNB processes the radio protocol information and communicates with the 5GC.
Downlink direction:
The ground-based gNB generates the downlink transmission.
The signal travels through the feeder link to the satellite.
The transparent payload relays the signal over the service link.
The UE receives and processes the transmission.
Advantages of a transparent payload
Keeps the gNB processing primarily on the ground.
Can simplify satellite payload processing requirements.
Allows operators to use established ground-based RAN infrastructure.
May simplify some software maintenance and upgrade operations.
Supports architectures where the satellite primarily provides radio coverage and signal relaying.
Limitations
The satellite depends on the required feeder-link connectivity to ground infrastructure for the described real-time path.
The radio access processing is not hosted onboard in the transparent payload.
Satellite-to-satellite transport does not automatically replace the need for the relevant ground network connection.
Long propagation delays and satellite link conditions still need to be managed by the system.
A transparent payload is therefore useful when an operator wants to extend terrestrial RAN functionality through a satellite relay without relocating the gNB processing to space.
Regenerative NTN Payload Architecture
A regenerative payload processes the received radio signal beyond simple transparent relaying. Depending on the architecture, it may host a full gNB or selected gNB functions.
This model introduces more processing capability onboard the satellite.
Two important regenerative configurations
Full gNB hosted onboard
The satellite hosts the gNB functions needed for the supported radio access architecture. Depending on the deployment, the relevant interfaces connect the onboard gNB to the 5GC through transport infrastructure and gateways.
gNB-DU hosted onboard
The satellite hosts the distributed unit, while the gNB-CU remains elsewhere, commonly on the ground.
In this split arrangement, the DU handles the lower radio protocol layers, while the CU handles the upper layers. The transport and interface design must support the selected split.
Advantages of a regenerative payload
Enables onboard radio protocol processing.
Can support more flexible network topologies.
Can facilitate satellite-to-satellite connectivity in supported architectures.
May reduce dependence on continuously visible ground gateways for certain traffic paths when onboard processing and inter-satellite routing are available.
Creates opportunities for more advanced routing and network control arrangements.
Challenges
Higher onboard processing and power requirements.
More complex satellite hardware and software.
Increased requirements for fault management and secure software updates.
Additional design considerations for thermal management, reliability and radiation tolerance.
Greater integration complexity across the satellite, RAN and core network.
Regenerative payloads are especially important for evolving NTN architectures because they make it possible to place selected network functions closer to the satellite access link.
Understanding gNB, gNB-CU and gNB-DU in NTN
The gNB is the 5G NR base station. In a split gNB architecture, it can be divided into a Central Unit (CU) and a Distributed Unit (DU).
Understanding this split is essential for analyzing regenerative NTN architectures.
7.1 gNB-CU: Central Unit
The gNB-CU implements upper layers of the NR radio protocol stack. These include:
Radio Resource Control (RRC).
Service Data Adaptation Protocol (SDAP).
Packet Data Convergence Protocol (PDCP).
The exact CU functions and their division across control-plane and user-plane components depend on the deployment.
7.2 gNB-DU: Distributed Unit
The gNB-DU implements lower layers of the NR radio protocol stack, including:
Radio Link Control (RLC).
Medium Access Control (MAC).
Physical layer (PHY).
The DU handles time-sensitive radio processing and related lower-layer functions.
7.3 How the split affects NTN architecture
In a transparent architecture, the satellite primarily relays radio signals and the gNB protocol processing remains on the ground.
In a regenerative architecture, the satellite may host the full gNB or only the DU. If only the DU is onboard, the CU-to-DU transport arrangement becomes an important design consideration.
The selection depends on processing capability, latency requirements, feeder-link availability, satellite resources and the desired level of network autonomy.
Inter-Satellite Links (ISL) and Satellite-to-Satellite Connectivity
An Inter-Satellite Link (ISL) enables communication between satellites or satellite payloads.
ISLs can be implemented using radio-frequency or optical technologies, depending on the system design. They can form an interconnected satellite network that forwards traffic between different orbital locations.
Why are ISLs important?
Consider a satellite providing connectivity over the middle of an ocean. At a particular moment, it may not have a suitable visible NTN Gateway on the ground.
If the satellite has regenerative processing and a suitable ISL connection, it may forward traffic through another satellite that can reach a gateway.
A simplified path is:
UE → Satellite A → ISL → Satellite B → NTN Gateway → 5GC
This is a conceptual example. The actual route depends on satellite visibility, routing policies, link availability and the supported architecture.
Benefits of ISLs
Enable satellite-to-satellite transport.
Can extend connectivity beyond the immediate visibility of a gateway.
May reduce the need to route all traffic through the nearest available ground station.
Support flexible routing across satellite constellations.
Can provide alternative paths when supported by the constellation design.
An ISL is not the same as a radio access interface. It provides transport between satellites, while the service link connects the UE to the satellite and the feeder link connects the satellite with ground gateway infrastructure.
The Role of the NTN Gateway, 5G Core and IMS
The NTN Gateway connects satellite communication infrastructure to the wider network.
Depending on the architecture, it supports the relevant feeder-link termination, transport connectivity and interfaces toward the ground-based RAN or core network.
9.1 NTN Gateway
The gateway provides an essential connection between the satellite system and ground infrastructure. It may be responsible for carrying the relevant radio or transport signals, depending on whether the satellite payload is transparent or regenerative.
9.2 5G Core Network
The 5GC supports major network functions such as:
Access and Mobility Management Function (AMF).
Session Management Function (SMF).
User Plane Function (UPF).
Authentication Server Function (AUSF).
Unified Data Management (UDM).
Network Repository Function (NRF).
These functions provide registration, authentication, session management, mobility and user-plane services according to the deployed architecture.
Not every NTN deployment places all these functions in the same location. The 5GC can remain on the ground, while selected functions or related components may be distributed differently in more advanced designs.
9.3 IP Multimedia Subsystem
IMS may support services such as voice over IP and multimedia communications when included in the deployment.
IMS is not mandatory for every NTN service. Its placement and interaction with the satellite access network depend on the operator's service architecture.
Transparent vs Regenerative Payload: Key Differences
Parameter | Transparent payload | Regenerative payload |
Primary role | Relays radio signals | Performs additional onboard processing |
gNB processing | Primarily on the ground | Full gNB or selected functions may be onboard |
Satellite complexity | Generally lower processing complexity | Generally higher processing complexity |
Ground infrastructure | Ground gNB is required for the described architecture | Depends on which functions are onboard |
ISL integration | Possible transport considerations, but no onboard gNB implied | Can support architectures with onboard processing and ISLs |
Processing flexibility | More limited onboard processing | Greater onboard processing capability |
Software management | Most RAN processing software remains on the ground | Onboard RAN software may require satellite-specific management |
Typical design consideration | Simplicity and ground-based RAN integration | Flexibility, processing placement and network autonomy |
Key takeaway: Transparent and regenerative payloads are not simply two different satellite models. They represent different placements of communication processing functions within the overall NTN architecture.
Neither approach is universally better. The appropriate choice depends on coverage goals, latency, gateway visibility, satellite resources, service requirements and deployment cost.
Single Connectivity vs Multi-Connectivity
Parameter | Single connectivity | Multi-connectivity |
Number of simultaneous access connections | One selected connection | Multiple supported connections |
Possible access arrangement | One NTN access | TN + NTN or multiple NTN accesses |
Main architectural objective | Provide connectivity through one access arrangement | Enable simultaneous connectivity across multiple accesses |
Potential benefit | Simpler access arrangement | More flexible connectivity and service continuity |
Main challenge | Dependence on the selected connection | Coordination, UE capability and network integration |
Payload type | Transparent or regenerative, depending on the design | Transparent or regenerative, depending on the supported architecture |
Multi-connectivity does not automatically guarantee higher throughput or uninterrupted service. These outcomes depend on radio conditions, traffic distribution, protocol support and network configuration.
Practical NTN Architecture Examples
Example 1: Satellite coverage for a remote village
A remote village has limited terrestrial mobile coverage. A satellite provides the radio link between compatible UE equipment and a ground-based NTN Gateway.
With a transparent payload, the ground gNB handles the radio protocol processing. The gateway connects the access arrangement to the 5GC and data network.
This architecture can extend service reach without requiring a conventional terrestrial base station at every remote location.
Example 2: Connectivity over an ocean
A ship operating far from land needs communication beyond the reach of terrestrial mobile infrastructure.
A regenerative satellite may process the radio access traffic onboard. If the satellite cannot directly reach an appropriate gateway, a supported ISL path may forward traffic through another satellite.
The achievable service depends on satellite coverage, the gateway network and the available transport links.
Example 3: Terrestrial and satellite connectivity for service continuity
A compatible UE operates in an area where terrestrial coverage may become weak or unavailable.
A multi-connectivity architecture can provide simultaneous terrestrial and satellite connections when the UE and networks support the required procedures.
This arrangement can be useful for remote operations, critical communications and mobile users, although the exact continuity behavior depends on the implementation.
Example 4: Satellite constellation with distributed radio processing
A constellation uses regenerative payloads with onboard gNB-DU functions and ground-based CU functions.
The architecture must provide appropriate CU-DU connectivity, transport performance, synchronization and network management. Satellite motion and feeder-link availability are important engineering considerations.
These examples demonstrate why NTN architecture is a system-level decision rather than a choice based only on satellite altitude or payload hardware.
NTN Architecture Evolution Across 3GPP Releases
3GPP has progressively developed NTN support through its releases.
Release 17: The first normative NR-NTN baseline
Release 17 introduced normative support for NR NTN with transparent payload architecture, along with other NTN-related work.
Important engineering considerations included satellite propagation delay, timing alignment, UE support and the adaptation of radio procedures for satellite links.
Release 18: Coverage and operational enhancements
Release 18 continued to enhance NTN operation, including areas such as coverage, mobility and satellite access scenarios.
The scope of individual enhancements varies across NR NTN, IoT NTN and related work items.
Release 19: Regenerative payload support and further enhancements
Release 19 extends NR NTN support to regenerative payload architectures, including support for onboard gNB processing. Additional NTN-related enhancements are also part of the broader Release 19 work.
The exact capabilities depend on the relevant specification, feature, deployment and implementation.
It is important not to treat every Release 19 feature as universally deployed or supported by all commercial networks. A standardized capability and a commercially available implementation are different things.
For standards references, consult the 3GPP specification portal and the applicable versions of TS 38.300 and related specifications.
Benefits and Challenges of Different NTN Architectures
Benefits
Extended geographical coverage: NTN can serve remote and underserved areas that are difficult to cover using terrestrial infrastructure alone.
Flexible infrastructure: Satellite platforms can provide coverage over large areas and support different deployment models.
Alternative connectivity paths: Multi-connectivity and supported satellite routing arrangements can provide additional access options.
Processing flexibility: Regenerative payloads enable selected RAN functions to be placed onboard.
Support for diverse services: NTN can contribute to broadband access, IoT connectivity, maritime communications, remote operations and emergency communications.
Challenges
Propagation delay: Satellite distance introduces additional delay, particularly for high-altitude or geostationary systems.
Doppler effects: Relative satellite and UE motion can cause significant frequency shifts that must be managed.
Gateway visibility: Some architectures depend on a suitable feeder-link path to ground infrastructure.
Satellite resources: Onboard power, processing, thermal capacity and hardware reliability constrain payload design.
Mobility and service continuity: Satellite motion, changing beams and handover requirements complicate network operation.
Protocol integration: NTN must coordinate radio access, transport, core-network procedures and UE capabilities.
Operational complexity: Regenerative payloads and satellite constellations require robust monitoring, routing, fault management and software lifecycle processes.
NTN Architecture and Protocol Testing
Understanding NTN architecture is useful for telecom engineers involved in 5G protocol testing, network integration and RAN development.
Architecture knowledge helps engineers understand where protocol functions reside, which interfaces carry signaling and where failures may occur.
Key testing areas include:
NR radio access and RRC procedures.
UE registration and 5GC signaling.
NAS procedures and mobility management.
PDCP, RLC, MAC and PHY behavior.
Timing advance and propagation-delay-related procedures.
Satellite handover and service continuity.
CU-DU interface behavior in split-gNB architectures.
Feeder-link and gateway connectivity.
Inter-satellite transport and routing, where supported.
IMS signaling and voice service behavior, where applicable.
For practical analysis, engineers should distinguish radio access issues from transport, gateway and core-network issues. The same user-visible symptom may originate in different parts of the network.
A structured understanding of the architecture makes log analysis, call-flow interpretation and troubleshooting more effective.
Applications of NTN Network Architectures
NTN architectures can support a wide range of use cases.
Remote broadband: Providing connectivity to remote villages, islands and other underserved locations.
Maritime communications: Supporting ships and offshore facilities beyond terrestrial coverage.
Aviation connectivity: Enabling supported communication services for aircraft and passengers.
IoT connectivity: Connecting remote sensors, industrial devices and monitoring systems where terrestrial networks are unavailable.
Emergency communications: Providing alternative connectivity in disaster-affected locations, subject to operational availability.
Enterprise and industrial networks: Supporting remote infrastructure, energy facilities, transportation and field operations.
Future integrated networks: Combining terrestrial, satellite and potentially other non-terrestrial access technologies within a broader connectivity ecosystem.
The most suitable architecture depends on the required data rate, latency, mobility, availability, UE design and deployment economics.
The Future of NTN in 5G-Advanced and 6G
NTN is evolving from a satellite extension of terrestrial mobile infrastructure toward more integrated network architectures.
Future developments are likely to place continued emphasis on:
Greater integration between terrestrial and non-terrestrial access.
More flexible onboard processing.
Improved service continuity across different access networks.
Satellite constellation routing and inter-satellite connectivity.
More efficient support for IoT and remote devices.
Enhanced network management, automation and observability.
Integration with evolving 5G-Advanced and 6G system designs.
These developments will require engineers to understand both radio protocol behavior and end-to-end system architecture.
The distinction between transparent and regenerative payloads will remain important because it determines where processing occurs and how the satellite network interacts with the terrestrial RAN and core network.
Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)
Q1. What is NTN network architecture?
NTN network architecture describes how user equipment, satellites or other non-terrestrial platforms, radio access functions, gateways and core networks are connected to provide communication services.
Q2. What is the difference between transparent and regenerative NTN payloads?
A transparent payload primarily relays radio signals between the UE and ground-based radio access infrastructure. A regenerative payload performs additional onboard processing and can host a full gNB or selected gNB functions.
Q3. What is single-connectivity NTN?
Single-connectivity NTN is an arrangement in which the UE communicates through one selected access connection rather than simultaneously using multiple radio accesses.
Q4. What is multi-connectivity in NTN?
Multi-connectivity allows a UE to communicate simultaneously with multiple supported radio networks or core-network connections. Examples include terrestrial-plus-satellite access and multiple satellite accesses.
Q5. What is the role of the gNB in NTN?
The gNB provides 5G NR radio access functions. In transparent payload architecture, the gNB is on the ground. In regenerative architecture, the gNB or selected functions may be hosted onboard the satellite.
Q6. What is the difference between gNB-CU and gNB-DU?
The gNB-CU implements upper protocol layers such as RRC, SDAP and PDCP, while the gNB-DU implements lower layers such as RLC, MAC and PHY. Their exact responsibilities depend on the standardized split architecture.
Q7. What is an Inter-Satellite Link?
An Inter-Satellite Link is a communication link between satellites. It can provide transport across a satellite constellation and help forward traffic toward a satellite with access to a suitable gateway.
Q8. Does 3GPP Release 17 support regenerative NR NTN payloads?
Release 17 established the initial normative NR NTN baseline using transparent payload architecture. Release 19 extends NR NTN support to regenerative payload architecture. Refer to the relevant release-specific specifications for exact feature details.
Q9. Does regenerative NTN always provide lower latency?
No. Regenerative processing may change the location of processing and transport functions, but end-to-end latency also depends on satellite altitude, routing, link conditions, gateway location, network topology and processing delays.
Q10. Why should telecom engineers learn NTN architectures?
Architecture knowledge helps engineers understand signaling paths, protocol-function placement, UE connectivity, gateway behavior, core-network integration and troubleshooting in satellite-enabled 5G systems.
Conclusion
NTN network architecture is a fundamental topic for understanding how satellite connectivity integrates with 5G and 5G-Advanced networks.
Single-connectivity and multi-connectivity describe how the UE connects to one or multiple supported network accesses. Transparent and regenerative payloads describe how much communication processing takes place onboard the satellite.
A transparent payload relies primarily on ground-based gNB processing, while a regenerative payload can host the full gNB or selected functions such as the gNB-DU. Inter-satellite links can extend connectivity across a satellite constellation, while gateways and the 5G Core provide the necessary connection to wider network services.
With 3GPP Release 19 extending support to regenerative NR NTN payloads, understanding these architectural options is increasingly valuable for telecom professionals working on satellite communications, 5G RAN, core networks, protocol testing and future 6G technologies.
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